Different ways of looking at health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Different ways of looking at health - Essay Example â€Å"Health promoters need to be clear that what they do involves certain values and principles about what is ‘good health’ and health promotion† (Naidoo and Wills, 2000, p.130). Advances are likely to come from laboratory science that will not only assist the medical science professionals develop better drugs but also they will help them get deeper knowledge regarding working of the human body. The medical model of health emphasizes on diagnosing the diseases present in the human body and providing effective treatment to the person in order to eradicate the identified diseases. Medical model is mainly concerned with the effective treatment of diseases through medical science. Medical model promotes use of surgeries and drugs for the treatment of diseases. However, use of drugs by a medical professional is not considered good. â€Å"Multiple physical health, emotional, and interpersonal problems are associated with illicit drug use† (Leonard, 2009, p.2). Authority is the core element of the medical model. Doctors should not negatively use this element for providing instant treatment to the patients. Drug use should never be recommended as a permanent treatment for anyone. â€Å"A drug may be legal or illegal, harmful or helpful, such as those substances used in medical therapy† (Isralowitz, 2004, p.2). There exist some other drugs such as Amphetamines, Cocaine, and Marijuana, which are strictly prohibited in most of the countries including USA. Governments should put a ban on such pharmacists who hand over the drugs to the patients without receiving a prescription or a drug order from a licensed doctor. â€Å"A drug order is a medication order written to a pharmacist by a legal prescriber† (Durgin and Hanan, 2005, p.112). The medical professionals should never recommend such drugs to the patients that can adversely affect their health after providing them little benefits. Advancements in the field of medicine should

Workplace Bullying Essay Example for Free

Workplace Bullying Essay Bullying is a worldwide epidemic that has plagued our society system for decades. We often hear that most of bully cases take place in schools but the gospel truth is bully also happens in the workplace. The workplace that should be a safe environment that allows employees to be productive has been disrupted by bully as he creates a hostile work environment for all employees and drives everyone up the wall. In fact bullying in the workplace is one of the most significant challenge face by companies nowadays. Workplace bullying may refer to the tendency of individuals or groups to use persistent aggressive behaviour against co-workers. Workplace bullying comes in a wide variety of different forms such as physical force, verbal, sexual, mental or emotional depending on circumstance. The bullys behaviour also impose a big threat on the companys productivity. Bullying at workplace occurs because of the negative traits of the bully and the solution to overcome it are the person who is being bullied should stand for himself and the actions taken by the top management in order to solve bully. Firstly, bullying at workplace occurs because of the negative traits possess by the bully. This is because the bully perpetrator is jealous of his victim’s performance at the workplace, so he takes out his frustration and jealousy on his victim. One of the reasons is because he does not want his victim to surpass his performance as he perceives this as a threat that will put his position at stake. Instead of working in a healthy competition, the bully makes his victim feels inferior by saying inappropriate words to the victim which will lead the victim to have low self-esteem. According to King (n. d.), jealous of the victim’s achievement at work is the reason of why bullies pick their victim. Kane (n. d.), also supported this in her article by saying that employees who perform well and are loved by the employers are often being targeted by the bullies. This is simply because the bully does not wants his victim to get all the highlights and attention. Besides that, the bully bullies because he wants to hide his inadequacy in doing his work. He fears that if other workers figure out about his incompetency, they will look down on him. In order to cover his blemish, he does not own up to his mistakes and blame others or making other workers flaws look terrible just because he does not want to ruin his credibility, he overloads his victim with the works that he is incapable of doing and get the credit for it.  According to Oliver (2013), being called in front of the public to own up to their behaviour is the bully’s biggest fear as hiding inadequacy is the intention of bullying. Therefore, the factors that lead to bully are mainly because the bully is jealous and want s to hide his inadequacy in doing his work. Hence, the step that can be taken in order to overcome workplace bullying is the victim should stand up for himself. A victim of bully should have enough courage to go and confront the bully. Confronting the bully may seem like the hardest thing to do but everyone is aware that a bully is only brave when he knows that nobody will rise against him. A victim should not be a pushover and let the bully feels like he is in a comfort zone. In fact, the victim should let the bully knows what he has been keeping inside his heart by telling the bully how the bully’s behaviour impacted his work and he wants the bully to stop. According to McCoy (n. d.), the bully should be confronted, being explained the effects of his bullying has on the victim and being ask to stop. Through confrontation, it remarks the strong characteristics and firm decisions of the victim. So, the bully will know that he can no longer underestimate his victim. The next logical step that can be taken by the victim is by bringing this case to the top management. If confrontation does not seem to solve the problem, then it is time to get help from the top management to deal with the bully. The victim can start by documenting things like dates, time, and details of the incident and take note if another employee witnessed the incident before lodging a report to HR department because eye witnessed will make the evidence stronger. According to Rush (n. d.), incidents that make the victim feels agitate should be documented by creating a log of incidents that included day and time, nature of incidents and any person involved and any witnessed to what has occurred. The victim of bully should not just keep quiet and hopes for the bully perpetrator to stop because he will not stop. Not until a proper action is taken on him. â€Å"The victim of bully should voice out and get evidence to show that he or she is being bullied. Bullying issue should be reported to the company’s human resources management to be solved† (Halim, 2013 as cited in Tan, 2013). Thus, the victim should be brave to confront the bully and bring this case to the top management in order to avoid  himself from being bullied. Another solution to the problem is the actions taken by the top management. It has become the employers responsibility to ensure the safety of the workers at the workplace. Employer should monitor things that occur around the workplace especially regarding or the employees’ behaviour. By doing so, employer will be able to identify which of the employees that always cause problems at the workplace. If the rumours of bully start to circulate the workplace, employer should already starts an investigation to find the causes and the culprit. Employer must react quickly to resolve this bully issue if it is proven to be true. A competent employer does not just wait for the complaints files to arrive at his desk because he acknowledges that this bully thing can adversely affect the company’s name and it is not good for business. â€Å"Bullying in the workplace† (n. d.) states that safety of both mentally and physically of the workers must be ensured by the employer and employer must react sensibly in relation to such matter. Apart from that, the top management should make sure all the employees follow the rules of the workplace. Rules are created to be obeyed and without rules, people are nothing but savages. Hence, to make everyone at the workplace abide to the rules, it is important to strengthen the law of the workplace. In order to strengthen the law, the top management can conduct a meeting with all the employees and emphasize on the rules and regulations of the workplace. So, the employees will be clearer on the do’s and don’ts at the workplace. It is also important to let the employees know their rights especially for the bully victim. So, the employees will know how they are protected at work and where to get help when problems arise. Halim (2013, as cited in Tan, 2013) states that induction programme should be conducted to introduce the company’s rules and regulations, working culture, benefits and right for the workers. Besides that, the top management should also have a record on the disciplines performance of each of the employees and any employees performance who is not up to par will be having a disciplinary action taken on them. According to Heatherfield (n. d.), to protect the company’s and employees’ interest, written disciplinary action must be taken after counselling and coaching from manager give no improvement in returns. This is simply to bring awareness to the employee about the mistake he has  committed so that he will not repeat the same mistake again. Therefore, the employer need to take care of the safety of the employees and ensuring them to follow the rules to resolve bullies. In conclusion, negative traits of the bully himself and hiding incompetency in doing work are the two main reasons of why bullying occurs at workplace. Besides that, confronting the bully and bringing the bully case to the top management are the steps that can be taken by the person who is being bullied while top management should guarantee the safety of their employees at the workplace as well as ensuring all the employees to follow the rules of the workplace. Bully is not something that can be left without any proper action being taken to prevent it because it does not only create discomfort and embarrassment but it can also harm the health of the victim. Hence, for the convenience of the employees and employer, workplace bullying must be curbed before it becomes worse and affects the development of the organization. The basic essence of working is tolerance as well as understanding among the colleagues and the employer. If both parties cooperates, then this bully issue will defini tely be resolved. REFERENCES Bullying in the workplace. (n. d.). Retrieved July 19, 2014, from http://www.hsa.ie/eng/Workplace_Health/Bullying_at ­_Work/ Kane, S. (n. d.). Who is workplace bullys target. Retrieved July 20, 2014, from http://legalcareers.about.com./od/careertrends/a/Who-Is-A-Workplace-Bullys- Target.htm King, M. (n. d.). Why do people bully me in the workplace?. Retrieved July 20, 2014, from http://woman.thenest.com/people-bully-workplace-9097.html McCoy, W. (n. d.). Termination for bullying in the workplace. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from http://woman.thenest.com/termination-bullying-workplace-12070.html Olivier, S. (2013). Bullying in the workplace. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from http://www.communicate.co.za/_blog/communicate_blog/post/bullying-in-the-workplace/ Rush, M. (n. d.). How to protect yourself from a workplace bully. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from http://woman.thenest.com/protect-yourself-workplace-bully-8056.html Tan, K. (2013, October 22). Bullying in the workplace. The Star Online. Retrieved July 2, 2014, from www.thestar.com.my/Lifestyle/Features/2013/10/22/Bullying-in-the-workplace/

An Ecological Viewpoint On Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

An Ecological Viewpoint On Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs when only short term ecological gains are made at the cost of long term ecological benefits for humanity. During the last few decades we have polluted our air, water and land on which life itself depends with a variety of waste products. From an ecological point of view, pollutants can be classified as degradable or non-persistent pollutants which can be rapidly broken down by natural process.eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables etc., Slowly-degradable or persistent pollutants are pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade.eg:DDT(pesticides) and most plastics. Non-degradable pollutants cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate.eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury and nuclear wastes. Pollution is a very wide topic. This thesis focuses on two major pollutions- air and water, and explains in detail the causes, effects and control measures. Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. The air may become polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally caused by lightening. However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally-occuring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change. Air pollution began to increase in the beginning of the twentieth century with the development of transportation systems and large-scale use of petrol and diesel. These severe air quality problems due to the formation of petrochemical smog from the combustion residues of diesel and petrol engines were felt for the first time in Los Angeles. Pollution due to auto- exhaust remains a serious environmental issue in many developed and developing countries, including, India. The air pollution control act in India was passed in 1981 and the motor vehicle act for controlling air pollution was passed very recently. These laws are intended to prevent the air from becoming over polluted. The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution took place in Bhopal, where the extremely poisonous methyl isocyanides gas was accidently released from the Union Carbides pesticide manufacturing plant, on the night of December 2, 1984. The effects of this disaster on human health and the soil are felt even today. Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the primary source of air-borne lead emissions in Indian cities. The use of unleaded petrol is one way of reducing this pollutant. Pollutants are also found indoors from the infiltration of polluted outside air and from various chemicals used or produced inside buildings. The effects of air pollution on living organisms are adverse. Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause coma and even death. Sulphur dioxide irritates the respiratory tissues; chronic exposure to it causes a condition similar to bronchitis. The acids can become attached to particles which, when inhaled, are very corrosive to the lungs. The widely talked changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind. The effects on human health due to increased UV radiation are sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the bodys resistance to certain infections like measles, chickenpox and other viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic diseases like malaria introduced through the skin. UV rays also affect the ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen especially in the case of legumes and cabbage. Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and effluent control. One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place. This includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases through scrubbers, closed-collection recovery systems, and the use of dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators and so on. Building higher smoke-stacks facilitates the discharge of pollutants as far away from the ground as possible. Industries should be carefully located so as to minimize the effects of pollution after considering the topography and the wind directions. The substitution of raw materials that cause more pollution with those that cause less pollution will also help. Water pollution is when the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of mans activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted. Point sources of pollution are when a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source. E.g.: municipal and industrial discharge pipes. Non-point sources of pollution are when a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain etc., There are several classes of common water pollutants. These are disease causing agents which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. Large amounts of human waste in water increases the number of these bacteria, which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Other potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes may also be present in smaller numbers. Thus, the greater the amount of wastes in the water, the greater is the chance of contracting diseases. The third class of pollutants is inorganic plant nutrients. These are water -soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times more than actually required by plants. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute both soil and water. A fourth class of water pollutants is water- soluble inorganic chemicals, which are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and accelerate the corrosion of equipment that is in contact with this water. Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which includes oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic and human health. They enter the water directly from industrial activity, either from improper handling of chemicals in industries and usually from the improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes. The foremost necessity of controlling water pollution is prevention. On the other hand, setting up effluent treatment plants to treat wastes can reduce the pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be reused for either gardening or cooling purposes, wherever possible. A few years ago a new technology, called the Root Zone Process has been developed by Thermax. This system involves running contaminated water through root zones of specially-designed reed beds. To conclude, the responsibility to prevent pollution lies in the hands of every individual. Some concepts that help individuals contribute towards a better quality of our environment and human life are: Try to plant trees wherever you can and more importantly take care of them. They reduce air pollution. From the mail you receive reuse as many envelopes as you can. Use pesticides in your home only when absolutely necessary and use them in small amounts. Some insect species help to keep a check on the populations of pest species. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walking short distances or using a car pool, sharing a bike or using public transport. This reduces air pollution. Shut off the lights and fans when not needed. Do not use aerosol spray products and commercial air-fresheners. They damage the ozone layer. Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil or other products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or onto the ground. Buy consumer goods in refillable glass containers instead of cans or throwaway bottles. Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags when you buy groceries or vegetables or any other items. Use your own cloth bag instead. Set up a compost bit in your garden to produce manure and reduce use of fertilizers.

The Eastern Chipmunk Essay -- essays research papers

The Eastern Chipmunk The Eastern chipmunk is a small rodent of the Sciuridae family. This chipmunk is closely related to the red and grey fox, the flying squirrel, and the woodchuck. Its Taxonomic name is Tamias Striatus. The word Tamias, Means collector or keeper and Striatus refers to its bold stripes and coloring. The body of the average Eastern Chipmunk is about 8 to 10 inches long, the weigh about 2 ÂÂ ½ to 4 ounces. The ears are rounded with ears that stick straight up. It has short legs, the hind legs each have five claws, the front legs have four, and a long thumb like extension. They also have a furry flat tail. Chipmunks have short, dense body fur. It is the same color for males and females. This is a reddish-brown with black and white hairs. The cheeks and sides of the body are grayish-tan to tawny brown. Chipmunks are omnivorous. They generally eat nuts, seeds of herbaceous plants, mushrooms, berries, corn, the flesh and seeds of some fruits and garden vegetables, Birds' eggs, insects, snails, earthworms, millipedes, salamanders, small snakes, frogs and young...

Change Over Time: The years 1670-1729 Essay -- History, European Power

From 1670 to 1870, the political regimes of the Atlantic Basin underwent drastic changes that were ultimately detrimental to today’s society. The new ideas of the Enlightenment sparked cultural, political, and social revolutions all the way from the newly established colonies of the United States to the ancien regime of the country of France. But how did these governments change during this era? The answers lie in the beginning, middle, and end of the 1670s to 1870s. The years 1670-1729 mark the beginning of this era, where the start of change takes place. During this period, European powers ruled in various places, such as in the colonies of America and in Haiti. In the colonies of America, there â€Å"was no sign that North America might become a center of revolution† (Bentley, p. 784). Britain imposed their culture on the colonists. The colonists â€Å"regarded themselves as British subjects: they recognized British law, read English-language books, and often braved†¦ the North Atlantic Ocean to visit family and friends in England† (Bentley, p. 784), with trade fueling the colonies’ wealth and reliable protection from the British militia. In France, Louis XVI reigned, and things were mainly prosperous. However, Louis was an absolute monarch, and he created three estates. The first estate â€Å"consisted of about 100,000 Roman Catholic clergy† (Bentley, p. 787). The second â€Å"included some four hundred thou sand nobles† (Bentley, p. 787), and the third was the rest of the population-â€Å"about 24 million serfs, free peasants, and urban residents ranging from laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers to physicians, bankers, and attorneys† (787). Nevertheless, the French mainly prospered under Louis XVI’s reign. However, in Haiti, things were not as prosper... ... off to France, where he died of maltreatment. The generals who succeeded Toussaint â€Å"defeated the remaining troops and drove them out of the colony† (Bentley, p. 796). In 1803, they declared independence and later â€Å"proclaimed the establishment of Haiti, meaning â€Å"land of mountains†. In conclusion, the governments of the Atlantic Basin evolved significantly between the 1670s and 1870s. Governments were established that shaped the beginning of human and political rights for generations to come. Without the ideals and beliefs of the Enlightenment thinkers, the rapid transformation of the Atlantic Basin probably would have never happened and the world would have been anything but recognizable at this time. Thanks to the work of many revolutionary leaders and philosophes, the Atlantic Basin was able to become one of the most influential areas in world history to date.

Forgetting Sarah Marshall Essay

The movie â€Å"Forgetting Sarah Marshall† is a successful example of comedy. It was theoretical released on April 18, 2008. The film was brought together by a group of well acted performers and was very famous for perfectly combining the hilarious performances and the laughter together. I think that a successful comedy movie has to have these important factors. First, it needs to be performed with the perfect sounds elements such as the background music and the songs in the movie; second, the movie should be brought by some famous figures and directors, which were well-known in the comedy industry to make sure it will have a great hit this time; third, there should be a lot of stupid scenes with nonsense in the movie that will make people laugh their heads off. The movie â€Å"Forgetting Sarah Marshall† won the Golden Trailer Award for Wild Posts in the year 2008 and was nominated for 6 different awards such as the Golden Trailer Award Best Comedy, and Teen Choice Comedy Awards. The film is directed by the famous Nicholas Stoller and was written by Jason Segal. The movie was a successful hit and was well know among the teen’s group as well as the adults group. The main character of the movie; Peter, he had the most perfect life that all man wished for; which is dating the most famous and the sexiest TV star of the show Crime Scene, Scene of the Crime. But an awful break up which was brought up by now his ex-girl friend, TV star Sarah Marshall; Peter felt like he needs to get away from his life and forget everything about Sarah, so he decided to go to Hawaii for a vacation. The problem is Peter’s ex-girl friend is also on a trip to Hawaii with his new boyfriend; Snow. Peter had to learn to forget the past, stop being a baby, and finally become a man. In the movie, Peter is a sound effect editor for his ex-girlfriend’s TV show; Crime Scene, Scene of the Crime, he was suppose to do dark and ominous music for the background, after he broke up with Sarah, he was playing lively music for the show, which was a perfect part with sarcastic and dark humor in it. The movie cleverly blends together his act with his music talents. Such as the Dracula puppet song that he sang in front of a crowd of strangers that has no idea what he is doing, as soon as he is finished with the Dracula song; the awkward situation that everyone was in total silence was amusing and made the audience want to laugh without a reason. When Sarah Marshall’s new boy friend went on stage and sang her the song â€Å"Inside You†, with the ridicules body movements that he did with the song, the audiences are usually stunned at first, but as we watch it further, it definitely leads to full of laughter. A powerful comedy should be brought together by a group of well known figures in the comedy industry. â€Å"Forgetting Sarah Marshall† is a perfect example of a good comedy because it was produced by four producers, which they were all very famous for being in the comedy business for so long. The exclusive producer Richard Vane was also the producer of Last Holiday (2004), Rodney Rothman who was also the producer for Help Me Help You (2006), and Judd Apatow who was the actor in Pineapple Express (2008). Most importantly, Producer Shauna Robertson. She was the producer for many previous comedy great hits; such as the Pineapple Express (2008), Knocked Up (2007), The 40-Year-Old Virgin (2005) and Meet the Parents (2000). Jason Segal which was the writer of the film was also the leading actor of the movie. Actress Kristen Bell from the famous TV show Gossip Girl also took part in the movie, as well as Mila Kunis who was the sound for Meg Griffin for Family Guy and Bill Hader from Knocked up. With this impressive group of producers and performers, people will surge into the movie theater as soon as the film is released in the theaters. The most important element for a comedy is it has to have some scene that came out of nowhere and was totally stupid with nonsense. It is very important for a comedy, because people usually watch comedies when they don’t want to think about things and just want to enjoy the movie; otherwise there is no point of watching it. â€Å"Forgetting Sarah Marshall† is a perfect example because it is filled with nonsense. After breaking up with Sarah, Peter Felt like that he needs to have sex with different women just because his ex-girlfriend is having sex with another guy. After having a one night stand with a women that he barely even known, Peter cried in front of her and was acting totally out of ordinary. Also when the chief invite him to go and prepare dinner with him, they end up chasing a pig and Peter had to kill the pig with his bare hands. Scene in the movie shows much different nonsense that will usually make people laugh from their heart. The movie was loved widely all over the world, but there are still a lot of people who didn’t like the movie â€Å"Forgetting Sarah Marshall†. A lot of professionals’ movie critics didn’t like the movie because they think that the contents are â€Å"totally forgettable† or they think that â€Å"it is hard to like a character in the movie, when his own movie makes fun of himself. † I disagree with these critics, because there are many scenes in movie that people will not forget after that watched it, and a comedy are usually funny because the main characters were made fun of, either by himself or the other characters in the movie. That is what usually makes a movie a great hit of comedies. Just like what I previously mentioned, â€Å"forgetting Sarah Marshall† includes the perfect factors of sound element, was performed and brought together by a power group of people in the comedy industries, it also includes many stupid senses that people will not forget and will be talking about it among everyone who have watched the movie. This film is a great example of a comedy, and it is only for you to watch it and find out for yourself.

Bar and Bat Mitzvahs

Rites of passage are a common element of various populations. These rites indicate a change in the lives of those involved. This change usually includes more responsibilities of one kind or another and the rite takes the participant into that next phase of life. One such rite for those of the Jewish faith is the passage into adulthood in a religious, and to an extent, a social sense. The b’nai mitzvah, bar mitzvah for boys and bat mitzvah for girls, are the ceremonies established for this purpose.The ceremony takes place when a boy turns thirteen, or a girl twelve or thirteen, and afterwards, the child is then considered an adult within the religion, expected to take on the responsibilities thereof so that they may help to teach others the ways of the Jewish faith. These responsibilities include praying, observance of the Sabbath, fasting when it is required, and other such things.While such things were considered mainly the responsibilities of those who were becoming adult ma les, it has evolved over the centuries to include females to one extent or the other as well, although Orthodox churches still tend to exclude women from performing many of the tasks that have traditionally been the roles of the male. The word â€Å"mitzvah† is defined as a commandment, while â€Å"bar† and â€Å"bat,† respectively, mean son and daughter.These terms indicate that those going through the ritual are now at a point where they can fulfill the commandments, becoming responsible members of the faith and be welcomed into the adult population. From that point on, the child is considered an adult â€Å"for purposes of participating in synagogue ritual† (Fox and Zimbler 18-19). According to Cohen and Weinrott, â€Å"The goal of the bar and bat mitzvah is to enter the larger community, while at the same time recognizing one’s own unique individual spiritual and social circumstances† (5). Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 2 of 9The first indica tion of the practice of the bar mitzvah seems to be in the Talmud several centuries ago during the Second Temple, when it is recorded that the sages would â€Å"bless a child who had reached the age of thirteen and who had fasted on Yom Kippur† (Lewit and Epstein 5). At that time there was no ceremony involved, only the declaring of the boy as bar mitzvah on his thirteenth birthday. He was considered an adult then, expected to follow the laws and take responsibility for himself instead of being considered the responsibility of his father.It was in the thirteenth or fourteenth century that this transition became formalized in such a way that resembles the ritual practiced today. The ceremony then led into a meal to celebrate the boy’s transition, and by 1595, this feast became â€Å"so sumptuous that a communal tax was placed on the celebration to stop such excesses† (Cohen and Weinrott 11). The bat mitzvah was not such an illustrious occasion as early as the bar mitzvah. The Talmud records that, around the second or third century, girls came of age at twelve to fulfill the commandments.Women were not obligated like men to engage in most religious exercises, their responsibilities instead revolving around home and family. While this age was considered important, it was not until the seventeenth century that it was considered important to celebrate the occasion. France and Italy celebrated with a ceremony in the middle of the nineteenth century at the latest, but it was not until 1922 that girls were accorded the same ceremony as boys with their bat mitzvah, when Mordecai Kaplan of the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, who founded Reconstructive Judaism, held the ceremony for his daughter.In some congregations, a girl becomes bat mitzvah at twelve, while in others the ceremony is performed at thirteen, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 3 of 9 like it is for boys. Different congregations of Judaism treat the coming of age of boys and girls in d ifferent ways. While some give equal credence to the two genders during this time in belief that both should be on equal footing, there are others who believe that the religious obligations of boys and girls are different and therefore they should follow different rules.This leads to even more differences in the observance of this special time for girls than it does before, as some congregations have the identical ceremony for both genders while others give the girls less religious responsibility during the occasion. It is not that they consider the duties of a female to be less important, only separate and distinct from those expected from males. The celebration of these ceremonies took on different aspects in different countries starting late in the Middle Ages.The differences included such things as on which days the ceremony took place and how much of the service was conducted by the boy himself. The Marranos in Spain and Portugal were forced to practice their religion in secret , and the day of the bat mitzvah was when a boy was introduced to the religion. This secrecy helped to preserve the religion for more than 300 years in those countries. The traditional day for the bar or bat mitzvah to take place is on Saturday, which is known as Shabbat, or Sabbath.Bat mitzvahs are often held on Fridays, different congregations either giving the choice as to whether to hold it on Shabbat or requiring that it be done on Friday night. It is also possible for either ceremony to be held on Mondays or Thursdays, which were days in the days of the Temple when the Torah was read. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 4 of 9 While some may choose to enhance the event by combining it to some extent with existing Jewish holidays, there are certain days which are usually avoided.The traditions of these holidays can help to make the day even more special and memorable. However, there are certain days that involve the remembrance of tragic times for the Jewish people, and these days, such as Yom Ha-Shoah, when the lives of those lost in the Holocaust are remembered, are considered inappropriate for the occasion due to the solemnity and focus on those who have been lost. Many children who are approaching their time of bar or bat mitzvah take part in a course of study to help prepare them for the occasion.Children are often taught in groups, and during this time they learn the blessings which are said at the ceremony as well as the basic skills that are needed for the synagogue, which include â€Å"the use of the tallit, tefillin; the blowing of a shofar; how to lift and dress the Torah, and other Jewish practices† (Lewit and Epstein 35). In addition to this training of the children in groups comes more individualized training with the cantor. Each child will usually spend four to six months training in this way.Other tutors may be utilized as well, giving the children a well-rounded and intensive study of what is to come and what is expected of them. Study aids such as the Tikkun are also helpful for this purpose. The Tikkun is a book that is used to help practice reading the Torah, giving help not only with pronunciation, but also with melody, which is a large part of the ceremonies in many congregations. The duties of the bar or bat mitzvah vary from congregation to congregation. At the simplest, it is simply the responsibility of the newly proclaimed adult to recite a blessing at the Torah.This is the most sacred of books in the Jewish faith, and is Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 5 of 9 handwritten on a scroll made of parchment. It is considered an honor to recite a blessing at the Torah, and is the most important part of the bar or bat mitzvah. Depending upon the congregation, he or she will read part or all of the passage, and then the Torah is taken around the synagogue before being returned to its place in the ark which is either at the front or the center of every synagogue.Another common duty of the bar or bat mitzvah is to read the H aftarah, which is a reading from the Prophets. It, as the Torah, has its own melodies that are usually followed and which take much practice to get right. In some Reform congregations it and the Torah are merely recited. Some congregations can require even more responsibility from the bar or bat mitzvah. He or she can be expected not just to recite the entire Torah portion of the service, but also to lead some of the service or to take over with certain prayers.A speech can also be required, and the father usually recites a blessing as well, officially relinquishing responsibility for the child who has now become an adult. Some congregations also require the child to spend time writing what is known as a dvar Torah for the ceremony. This is a commentary on a portion or portions of the Torah that the child is expected to study and interpret in his or her own way. He or she usually relates it somehow to his or her life and the significance of the Jewish faith to the individual writing it. The length of the document does not matter so long as it expresses something meaningful.In addition to the duties expected from the bar or bat mitzvah, others can play a significant role in the ceremony. The number of these can vary in different congregations, but it is considered an honor to the participants who perform those duties. Those who Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 6 of 9 take part in this are usually close to the child, and it is a duty that those asked to participate take very seriously. However, Orthodox churches tend to disallow the participation of women in most, if not all, of these. The most important role for one of these honorees is that of the aliyah.This is when one is allowed to go to the pulpit and both before and after one section is read from the Torah, to recite a blessing. The number of people who can be an aliyah can be as high as eight, with the last one being that of the child, who is to the final blessing, which is known as the Maftir. This demonstrate s the first real responsibility that a child is accorded in the congregation to illustrate his or her adult status. Other honors can include family members who are allowed to read a section of the Torah as well as tasks that can be taken on in some cases by younger children.There are also tasks that can be taken on by those who are not allowed to participate in the Torah service. They can help to hand things out, serve as ushers, or even decorate the synagogue for the ceremony and bake refreshments. There is also a tradition for many of those in the congregation to throw nuts and candies at the newly proclaimed adult after the ceremony, and passing out such things is a job often taken on by younger family members. After the service, many Jewish families throw a celebration.This has been a big change from earlier days, when there was no pomp but simply a declaration of the child becoming an adult. But these celebrations have become an important part of some congregations, particularl y those of American Jews. Many more traditional Jews frown upon the seeming need of many families to try and outdo each other in the extravagance of this celebration. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 7 of 9 One of the traditions that is often followed at Jewish celebrations, including the b’nai mitzvah, is called the Kiddush.This is a prayer over wine that is defined as sanctification. Red wine is the most commonly used for this purpose and it is decided by the family who will chant the Kiddush. This can be one or more people, depending on their preference. The only one who is required to drink from the goblet of wine is the chanter of the blessing, but some prefer to pass it around so that all may have a taste, or with larger groups, cups may be provided for all. Another blessing that is given is the Motzi, which is the blessing over bread.Bread is a very important part of the Jewish meal, and a braided bread known as challah is used for such a purpose as important ceremonies. They are symbolic, and â€Å"represent not just the staff of life, but unity and peace as well† (Cohen and Weinrott 151). The bread is blessed after the wine, giving thanks for the feast that is to be shared. During the Kiddush, the challah is covered with a cloth, some traditions stating that this is to protect the bread from being embarrassed because the wine is blessed first.After the blessing of the bread, there is no need for blessings to be said over any of the following courses. It is usually tradition for a grandparent, or eldest member of the family, to say the blessing over the bread as well as cut it after the blessing. It may then be sliced and then passed around to all present, although some prefer to tear the bread with hands instead of cutting it with a knife. It is then usually salted before being eaten, and then the rest of the meal follows. A more recent tradition among the American Jews is that of the candle lighting ceremony.Thirteen or fourteen people are com monly chosen to light candles that are often placed on a cake, and sometimes make a blessing over the candles for the child. A Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 8 of 9 cake is not always used, however, with some people preferring a candelabra or other setting. When the candles are lit is also optional, some preferring it before the meal while others wait until after. Music is often used to announce the tradition, and special words are often said by those lighting them and occasionally by the child as well.During the celebration is also a time when many choose to make toasts to the child and his or her future and to wish that child well. The parents might choose to give speeches, and usually anyone is invited to say something if they wish, although brevity is often appreciated. The ceremony of Havdalah, which means separation, is often incorporated into Saturday night celebrations, and regarding bar and bat mitzvahs, â€Å"it is a special reminder of the bittersweet separation of youth and adulthood† (Cohen and Weinrott 159).After the celebratory meal, it is a tradition to say the Birkat Ha-Mazon, which means â€Å"grace after the meal. † Four prayers make this up, and then there are also psalms and blessing said as well. There are many choices as to who can lead this service, from the rabbi to the bar or bat mitzvah. However, there are also those who prefer less formal graces, and they might even include a poem or other prayers. The conclusion of this grace is a prayer for peace. Music has always been a large part of the Jewish culture; therefore it is often included as an important part of the celebration.The offerings of this can range anywhere from the simple to the more elaborate, depending upon the tastes of those involved. It is preferable to involve the guests with this, and that can be done in a variety of ways, from singing to dancing, which usually includes the hora. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 9 of 9 The hora is a traditional dance used during J ewish celebrations. It was developed early in the twentieth century in Israel, and is a group dance, where the dancers are linked to each other in a circle, arms linked and hands on the shoulders of those next to them.This represents the closeness of the community and the equality of value of all of the people involved†¦ After the hora often comes the chair dance, in which the child sits in a chair and then that chair is lifted above their shoulders by those present. They are then danced that way, and often parents and other family members are allowed to share in the feelings of exultation by having their own turn in the chair. This dance emphasizes not only the individual who is put in the spotlight, but the community around that person who supports the chair and the individual during that time.The sense of community is very important to those of the Jewish faith, and this dance is a demonstration of this. Ceremony is a very crucial part of Judaism. This can be seen in many of their holidays and ceremonies, and the importance of the b’nai mitzvah can be considered to be the fact that it is this that pulls yet another into the community of Jewish adults. The new adult is allowed then to participate in ways that only adults can, and this strengthens the religion as a whole, passing the traditions and beliefs on to another generation so that it may again be passed on to that person’s children.Perhaps the fact that the Jewish people have been through much pain and difficulty throughout their history has helped to make these ceremonies even more important than they once were, transitioning them from a simple announcement of adulthood and breaking off of responsibility by the father to the elaborate celebrations that many have today. Bibliography Cohen, Jayne and Lori Weinrott. 2004. The Ultimate Bar/Bat Mitzvah Celebration Book. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers. Fox, Karen L. and Phylliz Zimbler Miller.1992. Seasons for Celebratoin: A Contem porary Guide to the Joys, Practices, and Traditions of the Jewish Holidays. New York: The Putnam Publishing Group. Himelstein, Dr. Shmuel. 1990. The Jewish Prayer: Questions and Answers on Jewish Faith and Cuture. New York: Facts on File, Inc. Lewit, Jane and Ellen Epstein. 1996. The Bar/Bat Mitzvah Planbook. Lanham, MD: Scarborough House. Oppenheimer, Mark. 2005. Thirteen and a Day: The Bar and Bat Mitzvah Across America. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.